IntroductionIn this study we evaluated long-term effects of frontal beta EEG-neurofeedback training (E-NFT) in healthy subjects. We hypothesized that E-NFT can change frontal beta activity and that changes in frontal beta EEG activity are accompanied by altered cognitive performance changes.Methods19 healthy women and 6 healthy men participated in this study. The subjects were randomly adjusted to a real E-NFT or a placebo E-NFT. EEG was recorded by means of a Deymed Truscan 32-channel system with 19 channels before E-NFT (t1), post to the training sessions (t2) and 3- years after E-NFT (t3). For E-NFT an average of respectively 14.3 and 13.2 training sessions were completed for experimental and control group. Each trainingsession took approximately 45 minutes; training-protocol: increase 12-18 Hz at Fz-electrode, auditory and visual feedback was given if EEG activity was increased at Fz for at least 1second.ResultsCompared to the sham E-NFT, which was used for the control group, real E-NFT increased beta activity in a predictable way (postmeasurement1 after NFB training, t2, post-measurement after 3years, t3). However, regarding our sample of healthy subjects E-NFT did not result in significantly improved cognitive performance.DiscussionThe main finding of the present study was an increase in cortical frontal beta activity after E-NFT. We also found evidence of a long-term effect on the basis of a follow-up measurement after three years. Based on our results we conclude that EEG-NFT can selectively change EEG beta activity, in the short and long term.

IntroductionDyfunctions of prefrontal neuronal circuits contribute to the pathophysiology of depression. Previous studies showed increased functional MRI and EEG connectivity in patients with depression. In this study we investigated a large sample of patients with major depression (n=228) and healthy subjects (n=215).MethodsSpectrotemporal dynamics during resting state with closed eyes were analyzed in sensor and source space to examine functional EEG connectivity (fcEEG) alterations between groups. Quantitative measures of delta, theta, alpha, beta and gamma power, hemispheric asymmetry, coherence, phase and current source density (CSD, eLORETA) analyses were calculated from artifact-free EEG recordings.ResultsEEG theta power was increased in all brain regions in the group of patients with a focus in frontal regions and increased frontal theta and alpha power. Excessive coherence differences were detected in the delta, theta and alpha-bands in frontal, frontal-temporal and frontal-parietal regions. There were changes in phase differences in the delta, theta, alpha-bands between patients and healthy subjects. Differences in CSD were found for the delta, theta, alpha-band in the (rostral and subgenual) anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) with increased CSD in the patients.ConclusionThe main finding of the present study was an increase in cortical slow-wave activity in sensor and source space in patients with depression revealing marked differences in prefrontal cortical networks. Functional delta, theta and alpha connectivity (coherence and phase) were altered with a predominance in the left hemisphere. Dysfunctions of the ACC, together with alterations in fcEEG may contribute to the pathophysiology of major depression.

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Objective
In this study we evaluated long-term effects of frontal beta EEG-neurofeedback training (E-NFT) on healthy subjects. We hypothesized that E-NFT can change frontal beta activity in the long-term and that changes in frontal beta EEG activity are accompanied by altered cognitive performance.
Methods
25 healthy subjects were included and randomly assigned to active or sham E-NFT. On average the subjects underwent 15 E-NFT training sessions with a training duration of 45min. Resting-state EEG was recorded prior to E-NFT training (t1) and in a 3-year follow-up (t3).
Results
Compared to sham E-NFT, which was used for the control group, real E-NFT increased beta activity in a predictable way. This increase was maintained over a period of three years post training. However, E-NFT did not result in significantly improved cognitive performance.
Conclusion
Based on our results, we conclude that EEG-NFT can selectively modify EEG beta activity both in short and long-term.
Significance
This is a sham controlled EEG neurofeedback study demonstrating long-term effects in resting state EEG.

This pilot study attempted to study the applicability of neurofeedback for elderly persons living in nursing homes. We hypothesized an improve of cognitive functioning and the independence in daily life (IDL) of elderly people by using low beta (12-15HZ) EEG neurofeedback training (E-NFT). The participants (active E-NFT group, n=10; control group, n=6) were community living elderly women without dementia. Neurofeedback training was adjusted ten times within 9 weeks, with a training duration of 21 minutes by use of a single electrode, which was centrally placed on the skull surface. Executive functioning (measured with the Rey and fluency tasks), memory capacity (measured with the 15 words test), and IDL (measured with the Groningen Activity Restriction Scale) were measured before and after ten E-NFT sessions in nine weeks. No effects were found for IDL nor executive functioning. Interestingly, performance on the memory test improved in the experimental group, indicating a possible positive effect of E-NFT on memory in elderly women. This study demonstrates that E-NFT is applicable to older institutionalized women. The outcome of this pilot-study justifies the investigation of possible memory effects in future studies.